Wikipedia

Tɛknɔlɔgyi

Tɛknɔlɔgyi yɛ nimdeɛ a wɔde di dwuma de duru botaeɛ ahodoɔ a mfasoɔ wɔ so ho wɔ ɔkwan a wɔbɛtumi asane ayɛ bio so.[1] Asɛmfua mfididwuma nso bɛtumi akyerɛ nnoɔma a ɛfiri mmɔdemmɔ a ɛte saa mu ba,[2] : 117. Nkyekyɛm [3] a nnwinnadeɛ a wɔtumi hunu te sɛ nnwinnadeɛ anaa mfidie, ne nea wɔntumi mfa wɔn nsa nka te sɛ softwea nyinaa ka ho. Mfididwuma di dwuma titiri wɔ nyansahunu, mfididwuma, ne da biara da asetena mu.

Photo of technicians working on a steam turbine
A steam turbine with the case opened, an example of energy technology

Mfididwuma mu nkɔsoɔ ama nsakraeɛ kɛseɛ aba ɔmanfoɔ mu . Mfididwuma a edi kan a wɔnim ne aboɔ adwinnadeɛ a wɔde dii dwuma wɔ mmere a ɛdii abakɔsɛm anim, na ɛno akyi no wɛdi ogya so a ɛboaa ma nipa amemene nyin na kasa nyaa nkɔsoɔ wɔ Nsukyenee Berɛ no mu . Ntwahonan a wɔyɛeɛ wɔ Kɔbere Mmere no mu no maa wɔtumi tuu kwan kɛseɛ na wɔyɛɛ mfidie a ɛyɛ den kɛseɛ. Mfididwuma mu nnoɔma a wɔayɛ nnansa yi, a nwoma tintim mfidie, telefon, ne Intanɛt ka ho no ama akwansideɛ ahodoɔ a ɛwɔ nkutahodie mu no so ate na ɛde nimdeɛ sikasɛm ab.

Berɛ a mfididwuma boa ma sikasɛm nya nkɔsoɔ na ɛma nnipa yiedie tu mpɔn no, ɛbɛtumi nso anya nkɛntɛnsoɔ bɔne te sɛ ɛfi ne nnoɔma a wɔsɛeɛ no, na ɛbɛtumi de asetena mu ɔhaw ahodoɔ te sɛ mfididwuma mu adwuma a wonnya nyɛ a ɛfiri afidie a wɔde yɛ adwuma mu ba no aba . Ne saa nti, nyansapɛ ne amammu mu akyinnyegye kɔ so wɔ dwuma a mfididwuma di ne sɛdeɛ wɔde di dwuma, mfididwuma mu abrabɔ pa, ne akwan a wɔbɛfa so abrɛ ne bɔne ase ho.

Wɔ afeha a ɛto so 20 mu no, ɛsiane nyansahunu mu nkɔsoɔ ne Mfididwuma mu Ɔsesɛ a Ɛto so Mmienu, nti, wogyaeɛ sɛ wobɛbu mfididwuma sɛ adesua mu nteɛsoɔ soronko na ɛnyaa dea ɛkyerɛ nnɛ: nimdeɛ a wɔde bɛdi dwuma wɔ nhyehyɛeɛ kwan so de ayɛ atirimpɔ ahodoɔ a mfasoɔ wɔ so.[2] : 1 . 119. Nkyekyɛm 

Etymology ho adesua

sesa

Mfididwuma yɛ asɛmfua a ɛfiri afeha a ɛto so 17 mfitiaseɛ a na ɛkyerɛ ‘ayaresa a wɔyɛ no nhyehyɛeɛ so’ (ɛfiri Hela kasa mu Τεχνολογία , efi Greek ne -λογία na ɛwɔ hɔ, ‘adesua, nimdeɛ’). [4] [5] Tete Hela asɛmfua tékhnē, a na ɛkyerɛ ‘sɛdea wɔyɛ nnoɔma ho nimdeɛ’, a na ɛka dwumadie ahodoɔ te sɛ adansi ho no na edii kan de dii dwuma.[6]

Ɛfiri afeha a ɛto so 19 no, Europa asasepɔn sofoɔ firii aseɛ de nsɛmfua Technik ( German ) anaa ɔkwan a wɔfa so yɛ ade ( Franse ) dii dwuma de kyerɛɛ ‘ɔkwan a wɔfa so yɛ’, a na mfididwuma ho adwinni nyinaa te sɛ asau, po so hyɛn, anaa nwoma tintim ka ho, sɛɛ ɛyɛ anaasɛ ɛnte saa nnwinnadeɛ anaa nnwinnadeɛ a wɔhwehwɛ.[2] : 1 . 114–115 na ɛwɔ hɔ Saa berɛ no, Technologie ( German ne Franse ) kaa nwomasua mu nteɛsoɔ a asua "akwan a wɔfa so yɛ adwinni ne nsaanodwuma", anaasɛ amammui nteɛso a "wɔabɔ wɔn tirim sɛ wɔbɛhyɛ mmara wɔ adwinni ne nsaanodwuma dwumadie ahodoɔ ho." [2] : 1 . 117. Nkyekyɛm Esiane sɛ nsonsonoeɛ a ɛda Technik ne Technologie ntam nni Borɔfo kasa mu nti, wɔkyerɛɛ mmienu no nyinaa ase sɛ mfididwuma . Kane no na asɛmfua no ntaa mma wɔ Borɔfo kasa mu na na ɛkyerɛ nwomasua mu nteɛsoɔ titire, sɛdea ɛte wɔ Massachusetts Mfididwuma Sukuu mu no .[7]

Abakɔsɛm

sesa
 
A person holding a hand axe

Ansa na abakɔsɛm reba

sesa

Mfitiase no hominids na wɔyɛɛ nnwinnadeɛ denam hwɛ ne sɔhwɛ ne mfomso so .[8] Bɛyɛ Mya 2 (mfe ɔpepem a atwam ni) no, wɔsuaa sɛdeɛ wɔyɛ aboɔ nnwinnadeɛ a edi kan denam hama a wɔde bɔɔ abotan nketenkete bi so, na wɔyɛɛ nsa agyan a ano yɛ nnam so.[9] Wɔyɛɛ saa adeyɛ yi mu nsakrae kya 75 (mfe apem a atwam ni) ma ɛbɛyɛɛ nhyɛsoɔ a ano yɛ mmere, na ɛmaa wɔtumi yɛɛ adwuma a ɛyɛ fɛ kɛseɛ.[9]

Charles Darwin kaa ogya a wohuu no ho asɛm sɛ "ebia ɛyɛ dea ɛsene biara a onipa ayɛ pɛn".[10] Fam tutu, aduane, ne asetena mu adanseɛ kyerɛ sɛ "[nnipa] ogya a wɔde di dwuma berɛ nyinaa" anyɛ yie koraa no 1.5 Mya.[11] Ogya a wɔde nnua ne fango, na ɛmaa nnipa a wɔdi kan no noa wɔn aduane ma ɛyɛɛ yie, na ɛmaa aduannuru a ɛwɔ mu no yɛɛ yie na ɛmaa nnuane dodoɔ a wobɛtumi adi no trɛɛ.[12] Adwene a ɛfa aduannoa ho no kyerɛ sɛ tumi a wɔtumi noa aduane no maa hominid amemene kɛse kɔɔ soro, ɛwom sɛ nhwehwɛmufoɔ binom hunu sɛ adanseɛ no nyɛ nokware deɛ.[13] Wɔkyerɛeɛ sɛ fam tutufoɔ adanseɛ a ɛkyerɛ sɛ ogya dan ahodoɔ no yɛ 790 kya; nhwehwɛmufoɔ gye di sɛ ɛbɛyɛ sɛ eyi maa nnipa fekubɔ mu yɛɛ den na ebia ɛno na ɛmaa kasa baeɛ.[14][15]

Mfididwuma mu nkɔsoɔ afoforɔ a wɔnyaeɛ wɔ Tete Aboɔ berɛ no mu ne ntadeɛ ne daberɛ.[16] Adwene biara nni hɔ wɔ bɛyɛ berɛ a wɔde bɛgye mfididwuma mmienu no mu biara atom no ho, nanso fam tutufoɔ ahunu fam tutufoɔ adanseɛ a ɛkyerɛ sɛ ntadeɛ 90-120 kya [17] ne daberɛ 450 kya.[16] Berɛ a Tete Abotan berɛ no kɔɔ so no, atenaeɛ bɛyɛɛ dea ɛyɛ nwanwa na ɛyɛɛ dea wɔayɛ no fɛfɛɛfɛ; kya 380 mu tɔnn no, na nnipa resi nnua asese a wɔde nnua ayɛ berɛ tiaa bi.[9][18] Ntadeɛ a wɔdane firii mmoa a wɔbɔ wɔn abɔmmɔ no nwoma ne nwoma mu no boaa adasamma ma wɔtrɛɛ kɔɔ mmeaeɛ a awɔ hɔ; nnipa firii aseɛ tu firii Afrika bɛyɛ kya 200, na mfitiase no wɔtu kɔɔ Eurasia.[9][19][20]

 
An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools

Abodan foforo bere mu

sesa

Aboɔ Foforo mu Ɔsesɛ (anaasɛ Kuadwuma mu Ɔsesɛ a Edi Kan ) no de mfididwuma mu nnoɔma foforɔ a wɔyɛeɛ ntɛmntɛm baeɛ, na dea efirii mu baeɛ ne asetena mu nsɛm a emu yɛ den a ɛkɔɔ soro.[21] Aboɔ agyan a wɔayɛ no fɛfɛɛfɛ a wɔyɛeɛ no yɛ nkɔsoɔ kɛseɛ a ɛmaa wɔtumi yii kwaeɛ akɛseɛ na wɔyɛɛ kua.[22] Aboɔ agyan a wɔayɛ no fɛfɛɛfɛ a wɔde dii dwuma yi kɔɔ soro kɛseɛ wɔ Aboɔ Foforɔ Mmerɛ no mu nanso mfitiase no wɔde dii dwuma wɔ Mesolithme berɛ a edii ɛno anim no mu wɔ mmeaeɛ bi te sɛ Ireland .[23] Kuadwuma maa nnipa pii nyaa aduane, na nsakraeɛ a wɔyɛeɛ kɔɔ baabi a wɔtena ase no maa wɔtumi tetee mmɔfra pii berɛ korɔ mu, efiri sɛ na ɛnhia sɛ atubrafo de nkokoaa di akɔneaba bio. Bio nso, na mmɔfra bɛtumi de adwumayɛfoɔ aboa ma wɔatete nnɔbaeɛ ntɛm sene sɛdea wɔbɛtumi de wɔn ho ahyɛ abɔmmɔfo ne nneɛma a wɔboaboa ano dwumadie ahodoɔ mu.[15][24]

Berɛ a nnipa dodoɔ a ɛkɔɔ soro ne adwumayɛfoɔ a wonyaeɛ yi maa adwumayɛfoɔ a wɔyɛ adwuma titire no nyaa nkɔanim .[25] Wɔnnim dea ɛkanyan nkɔsoɔ a ɛfiri mfitiaseɛ Aboɔ Foforɔ nkuraa so kɔɔ nkuro a edi kan te sɛ Uruk, ne anibue ahodoɔ a edi kan te sɛ Sumer, no pɔtee; nanso, wosusu sɛ asetena mu nhyehyɛeɛ ahodoɔ a ɛrekɔ so wɔ nnidisoɔ nnidisoɔ ne adwumayɛfoɔ titire a ɛbaeɛ, adwadie ne ɔko a ɛbaa amammerɛ ahodoɔ a ɛbɛn hɔ mu, ne hia a ɛhia sɛ wɔbom yɛ adeɛ de di nnoɔma a atwa yɛn ho ahyia ho nsɛnnennen te sɛ nsuo a wɔde gugu nnɔbaeɛ so, so nkunim no nyinaa dii dwuma.[26]

Nkɔsoɔ a ɛkɔɔ so no maa fononoo ne ahyɛnsodeɛ a ɛyɛ hu no baeɛ na ɛmaa, dea edi kan no, wɔtumi te sika kɔkɔɔ, kɔberɛ, dwetɛ, ne kɔberɛ hua na wɔyɛeɛ – dadeɛ a ɛwɔ hɔ ankasa a wɔhunu wɔ ɔkwan a ɛho te kakra so wɔ abɔdeɛ mu.[27] Mfasoɔ a ɛwɔ kɔberɛ nnwinnadeɛ so sene aboɔ, dompe ne nnua nnwinnadeɛ no daa adi ntɛm ara wɔ nnipa a wɔdi kan no mu, na ɛbɛyɛ sɛ wɔde kɔberɛ a ɛwɔ hɔ no dii dwuma firi berɛ a ɛbɛn Abodan Foforɔ mmerɛ no mfitiase (bɛyɛ ka 10).[28] Kɔberɛ a ɛwɔ hɔ no nni hɔ pii firi awosu mu, nanso kɔberɛ a wɔde yɛ nnoɔma abu so koraa na emu bi yɛ dadeɛ ntɛmntɛm berɛ a wɔhye wɔ nnua anaa fango ogya mu no. Awieeɛ koraa no, dadeɛ a wɔde yɛ adwuma no ma wɔhunuu nnoɔma a wɔde afra te sɛ kɔbere ne kɔbere (bɛyɛ 4,000 A.Y.B.). Dadeɛ a wɔde afra te sɛ dadeɛ a wɔde di dwuma dea edi kan no firi bɛyɛ afe 1,800 A.Y.B.[15][29]

 
The wheel was invented c. 4,000 BCE.

Tete

sesa

Berɛ a nnipa de ogya dii dwuma wiee no, wɔhunuu ahoɔden afoforɔ. Mframa ahoɔden a edi kan a wɔnim sɛ wɔde di dwuma ne hyɛn a ɛde po so hyɛn tu ; twerɛtohɔ a edi kan a ɛfa po so hyɛn bi a na ɛretu ne Nil hyɛmma bi a wɔyɛeɛ bɛyɛ afe 7,000 A.Y.B.[30] Ɛfiri berɛ a edii abakɔsɛm anim no, ɛbɛyɛ sɛ Misrifoɔ de tumi a Nil nsuyiri a ɛba afe biara no nya no dii dwuma de gugu wɔn nsase so nsuo, na nkakrankakra wɔsuaa sɛdeɛ wɔbɛhyehyɛ ne fa kɛseɛ no ara denam nsuo a wɔde gugu nnɔbaeɛ a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ ne nsukorabea ahodoɔ a "wɔkyere" so.[31] Tete Sumeriafoɔ a na wɔwɔ Mesopotamia no de nsuten ne nsuten a ɛyɛ den dii dwuma de dan nsu fi Tigris ne Eufrate nsubɔnten mu de gugu nnɔbaeɛ so.[32]

Wɔn a wɔtutu fam hwehwɛ tetefoɔ nnoɔma mu bu akontaa sɛ wɔde wɔn ho na wɔyɛɛ kankra no wɔ Mesopotamia (wɔ nnɛyi Iraq ), Caucasus Atifi fam ( Maykop amammerɛ ), ne Europa Mfinimfini fam.[33] Berɛ ho akontaabu frii 5,500 kɔsi 3,000 A.Y.B.[34] Nnoɔma a akyɛ sene biara a mfonini ahodoɔ a ɛkyerɛ teaseɛnam a kankra wom no firi bɛyɛ afe 3,500 A.Y.B.[35] Nnansa yi ara, wɔhunuu nnua kankra a akyɛ sene biara wɔ wiase no wɔ Ljubljana Marsh a ɛwɔ Slovenia no mu.[9]

Kankra a wɔyɛeɛ no maa adwadie ne ɔko mu nsakraeɛ kɛseɛ. Ankyɛ koraa na wohunuiɛ sɛ wɔbɛtumi de teaseɛnam a kankra wɔ so asoa nnesoa a emu yɛ duru. Tete Sumeriafoɔ de ɔnwemfo ntwahonan na ɛdii dwuma na ɛbɛyɛ sɛ wɔn na wɔyɛɛ no.[36] Abo nkuku ntwahonan bi a wɔhunuu wɔ kuro-man Ur mu no yɛ bɛyɛ mfeɛ 3,429 [37][37] Nkukuo ntwahonan a ɛkɔ ntɛmntɛm (a ɛkyinkyini) no maa wɔtumi yɛɛ nkuku pii ntɛm, nanso ɛyɛ ntwahonan no a wɔde dii dwuma sɛ ahoɔden a ɛsakra (ɛnam nsuo ntwahonan, mframa afidie, ne afidie a wɔde tu mmirika mpo so) na ɛsakraa ahoɔden a ɛnyɛ nnipa de a wɔde di dwuma no. Wɔnyaa teaseɛnam a edi kan a ɛwɔ ntwahonan mmienu no firii travois [38] mu na wɔdii kan de dii dwuma wɔ Mesopotamia ne Iran bɛyɛ afe 3,000 A.Y.B.[38]

Akwan a wɔasisi a akyɛ sen biara a wɔnim ne mmɔnten a wɔde aboɔ ayɛ a ɛwɔ kuro-man Ur mu, a wɔyɛeɛ wɔ bɛyɛ c. 4,000 A.Y.B.,[39] ne nnua akwan a ɛfa atɛkyɛ a ɛwɔ Glastonbury, England, a efiri bɛyɛ berɛ korɔ no ara mu.[39] Ɔkwan tenten a edi kan a wɔde dii dwuma bɛyɛ afe 3,500 A.Y.B.,[39] no trɛ 2,400 km firi Persia Po no mu kɔsi Mediterranea Po no ho,[39] nanso wɔansisi aboɔ na na wɔasiesie no fa bi pɛ.[39] mu bɛyɛ Minoan kwan a ɛfiri Gortyn ahemfie a ɛwɔ supɔ no anafoɔ fam, fa mmepɔ no so, kɔ Knossos ahemfie a ɛwɔ supɔ no atifi fam no.[39] Dea ɛnte sɛ ɔkwan a edi kan no, na wɔabɔ Minoa kwan no koraa.[39]

 
Photograph of the Pont du Gard in France, one of the most famous ancient Roman aqueducts[46]

Na nsu a ɛsen fa tete Minoafoɔ afie mu .[40] Wɔtuu adwaeɛ bi a ɛkame ayɛ sɛ ɛne nnɛ deɛ no yɛ pɛ wɔ Knossos Ahemfie hɔ.[40][41] Na Minofoɔ ankorankorɛ afie pii nso wɔ tiafi, a na wɔbɛtumi ahohoro denam nsuo a wɔbɛhwie agu nsuo a ɛrekɔ nsuo no mu no so.[40] Na tete Romafoɔ no wɔ tiafi pii a ɔmanfoɔ de nsuo gu mu,[41] na na ɛho te kɔ nsuo fi a ɛtrɛ mu.[41] Nsuo a ɛkɔ nsuo mu titire a na ɛwɔ Rome ne Cloaca Maxima ;[41] wɔfirii aseɛ sii wɔ so wɔ afeha a ɛto so nsia A.Y.B.[41]

Na tete Romafoɔ nso wɔ nsu kwan a ɛyɛ den,[42] a na wɔde fa nsuo fa akyirikyiri.[42] Wɔyɛɛ Romafoɔ nsuo kwan a edi kan wɔ 312 A.Y.B.[42] Wɔsii tete Roma nsuo kwan a ɛto so du-baako ne dea ɛtwa toɔ no mfeɛ 226 Y.B.[42] Sɛ wɔka bom a, na Roma nsuo kwan no trɛ bɛboro 450 km,[42] nanso ɛnnuru 70 km wɔ eyi so wɔ asase so na na wɔde abrannaa gyina akyi.[42]

Ansa na nnɛ berɛ reba

sesa

Nnoɔma foforɔ kɔɔ so kɔsii Mfinimfini Mmere no mu berɛ a wɔde sirikyi a wɔyɛ (wɔ Asia ne akyiri yi Europa), apɔnkɔ kɔla, ne apɔnkɔ nan ase baeɛ no. Wɔkaa mfidie a ɛnyɛ den (te sɛ lever, screw, ne pulley ) bɔɔ mu yɛɛ no nnwinnadeɛ a ɛyɛ den kɛseɛ te sɛ ntwahonan, mframa afiri, ne wɔɔkye .[43] Sukuupɔn ahorow nhyehyɛe bi yɛɛ nyansahu mu nsusuwii ne nneyɛe na wɔtrɛw mu, a Oxford ne Cambridge ka ho . [44] Ahosɛpɛ berɛ no maa nnoɔma foforɔ pii baeɛ, a dea ɛka ho ne mfidie a wɔde tintim nwoma a wɔde baa Europa, na ɛmaa nimdeɛ a wɔde di nkutaho no yɛɛ mmerɛ. Nyansahunu nyaa mfididwuma so nkɛntɛnsoɔ kɛseɛ, na ɛfiiri nkɔsoɔ a ɛkɔ so wɔ wɔn ho wɔn ho mu ase.

Abɛɛfosɛm

sesa
 
The automobile revolutionized personal transportation.

Ɛfiri United Kingdom wɔ afeha a ɛto so 18 mu no, anyinam ahoɔden a wɔhunuu no de Mfididwuma mu Ɔsesɛ, a ɛmaa wɔhunuu mfididwuma mu nnoɔma pii, titire wɔ kuayɛ, nnoɔma a wɔyɛ, famgudeɛ, dadeɛ, ne akwantuo mu, ne sɛdeɛ wɔde dii dwuma kɛseɛ no baeɛ adwumayɛbea nhyehyɛeɛ no .[45] Eyi akyi no, Mfiridwuma mu Ɔsesɛw a Ɛto so Abien a ɛde nyansahu mu nneɛma a wohuu ntɛmntɛm, hyehyɛɛ gyinapɛn, na wɔyɛɛ nneɛma pii bae. Wɔyɛɛ mfiridwuma mu nnoɔma foforɔ a dea ɛka ho ne nsuo fi, anyinam ahoɔden, kanea, anyinam ahoɔden mfidie, keteke akwan, kar, ne wiemhyɛn . Saa mfiridwuma mu nkɔso ahorow yi ma wonyaa nkɔsoɔ kɛse wɔ nnuruyɛ, abɔdeɛ mu nnoɔma ho nimdeɛ ne mfididwuma mu .[9] Wɔde asetena mu nsakraeɛ a ɛfirii mu baeɛ kaa ho, na wɔde abansoro adan a ɛkorɔn baeɛ a nkuro akɛseɛ a ɛkɔɔ so ntɛmntɛm ka ho .[46] Nkitahodie nyaa nkɔsoɔ berɛ a wɔyɛɛ telegraph, telefon, radio ne television no .[47]

Afeha a ɛto so 20 no de nnoɔma foforɔ pii baeɛ. Wɔ abɔdeɛ mu nnoɔma mu no, nuklea mpaapaemu a wohunuu wɔ Atɔm Mmere no mu no ma wonyaa nuklea akodeɛ ne nuklea ahoɔden nyinaa . Wɔyɛɛ kɔmputa na akyiri yi wɔdan fii analog so kɔɔ dijitaal so wɔ Digital Revolution no mu . Amanneɛbɔ mfididwuma, titire optical fiber ne optical amplifiers na ɛma wɔwoo Intanɛt na ɛde Amanneɛbɔ Berɛ no baeɛ . Ahunumu Mmere no firii ase berɛ a wɔde Sputnik 1 too dwa wɔ 1957 mu, na akyiri yi wɔde adwumayɛfoɔ a wɔyɛ adwuma wɔ bosome wɔ 1960 afe no mu no. Mmɔden a wɔahyehyɛ sɛ wɔbɛhwehwɛ nyansa a efi asase so no de radio afiri a wɔde hwɛ akyirikyiri adi dwuma de ahu mfiridwuma ho sɛnkyerɛnne, anaasɛ technosignatures, a ahɔho anibuei ahorow de ma. Wɔ nnuruyɛ mu no, wɔyɛɛ mfiridwuma ho nimdeɛ foforo a wɔde behu yare no ( CT, PET, ne MRI scanning), ayaresa (te sɛ dialysis afiri, defibrillator, pacemaker, ne nnuru foforo pii a wɔde yɛ nnuru ), ne nhwehwɛmu (te sɛ interferon cloning ne DNA microarrays ) . .[48]

Nneɛma a wɔyɛ ne adansi ho akwan ne ahyehyɛde ahorow a ɛyɛ den ho hia na wɔatumi ayɛ nnɛyi mfiridwuma pii na wɔakura mu, na nnwuma mũ nyinaa asɔre sɛ wɔbɛyɛ awo ntoatoaso a edi hɔ a wɔde nnwinnade a ɛreyɛ den kɛse. Nnɛyi mfiridwuma de ne ho to ntetee ne nhomasua so kɛse – wɔn adwumfo, adansifoɔ, wɔn a wɔhwɛ so, ne wɔn a wɔde di dwuma no taa hwehwɛ nteteeɛ a ɛyɛ nwonwa a ɛfa biribiara ho ne pɔtee.[49] Afei nso, saa mfiridwuma yi abɛyɛ nea ɛyɛ den araa ma wɔayɛ nnwuma mũ nyinaa a ɛbɛboa, a mfiridwuma, nnuruyɛ, ne kɔmputa ho nyansahu ka ho ; ne nnwuma afoforo abɛyɛ nea ɛyɛ den kɛse, te sɛ adansi, akwantu, ne adansi .

Nsunsuansoɔ

sesa

Mfiridwuma mu nsakrae ne ade kɛse a ɛde sikasɛm mu nkɔso a ɛtra hɔ kyɛ ba.[50][51] Wɔ adesamma abakɔsɛm nyinaa mu no, na ahoɔden a wɔyɛ no ne ade titiriw a ɛmma sikasɛm mu nkɔso, na mfiridwuma foforo maa nnipa tumi maa ahoɔden dodow a ɛwɔ hɔ no kɔɔ soro kɛse . Nea edi kan bae ogya, na ɛmaa wotumi di nnuan ahorow pii, na ɛmaa ɛnyɛ den sɛ wɔbɛyam wɔ nipadua mu. Ogya nso maa wotumi yɛɛ smelting, ne tin, kɔbere, ne dade nnwinnade a wɔde bɔ abɔmmɔ anaa aguadi . Afei kuayɛ mu nsakrae bae: na enhia sɛ nnipa bɔ abɔmmɔ anaasɛ wɔboaboa wɔn ho ano bio na wɔatumi atra ase, na wofii ase kɔtraa nkurow ne nkurow akɛse mu, na wɔhyehyɛɛ aman a emu yɛ den kɛse, a asraafo ne nyamesom ahorow a wɔahyehyɛ no yiye wom .[52]

Mfiridwuma aboa ma nnipa yiyedi aba denam yiyedi a ɛkɔ soro, ahotɔ ne asetra pa a ɛkɔ anim, ne aduruyɛ mu nkɔso so, nanso ebetumi asɛe asetra mu nniso a ɛwɔ hɔ dedaw no nso, de efi aba, na apira ankorankoro anaa akuw.

Nnansa yi mfe ama social media ’s amammerɛ mu din kɛse aba, na ebetumi de nkɛntɛnso aba demokrase, ne sikasɛm ne asetra mu asetra so. Mfiase no, na wohuu intanɛt sɛ "ahofadi mfiridwuma" a ɛbɛma nimdeɛ ayɛ demokrase, ama nhomasua a wobenya no atu mpɔn, na ama demokrase anya nkɔso. Nnɛyi nhwehwɛmu adan akɔhwehwɛ intanɛt so bɔne ahorow mu, a nsɛm a ɛnteɛ, polarization, ɔtan kasa, ne nsɛmmɔnedi ka ho.[53]

Efi 1970 mfe no mu no, wɔakasa atia nkɛntɛnso a mfiridwuma nya wɔ nneɛma a atwa yɛn ho ahyia so no, na ɛde sika a wɔde hyɛ owia, mframa, ne ahoɔden a ɛho tew afoforo mu no akɔ soro .

Asetenam

sesa

Nnwuma

sesa

Efi bere a wɔyɛɛ ntwahonan no, mfiridwuma ho nimdeɛ aboa ma nnipa sikasɛm mu nkɔso akɔ soro. automation a atwam no de adwumayɛfo asi adwumayɛfo ananmu na wɔaboa wɔn; mfiri besii nnipa ananmu wɔ nnwuma bi a akatua sua mu (sɛ nhwɛso no, wɔ kuayɛ mu), nanso wɔde nnwuma foforo a akatua kɛse wom a wɔyɛe no tuaa eyi so ka.[54] Nhwehwɛmu ahorow ada no adi sɛ kɔmputa amma mfiridwuma mu adwuma a wonnya nyɛ kɛse amma .[55] Esiane sɛ nyansa a wɔde ayɛ ade tumi yɛ adwuma sen kɔmputa koraa, na ɛda so ara wɔ ne mmofraase nti, wonnim sɛ ebia ebedi su koro no ara akyi anaa; wɔagye asɛmmisa no ho akyinnye tenten wɔ sikasɛm ho abenfo ne nhyehyɛeyɛfo mu. Nhwehwɛmu bi a wɔyɛe wɔ afe 2017 mu no anhu sɛ sikasɛm ho abenfoɔ adwene nhyia pefee wɔ sɛ ebia AI bɛma adwuma a wonnya nyɛ akyɛ no akɔ soro anaa.[9] Sɛnea World Economic Forum "The Future of Jobs Report 2020" kyerɛ no, wɔahyɛ nkɔm sɛ AI besi nnwuma ɔpepem 85 ananmu wɔ wiase nyinaa, na ɛde nnwuma foforo ɔpepem 97 aba afe 2025.[9][9] Efi 1990 kosi 2007 no, nhwehwɛmu bi a MIT sikasɛm ho ɔbenfo Daron Acemoglu yɛe wɔ U.S. kyerɛe sɛ sɛ wɔde robɔt biako ka ho ma adwumayɛfo 1,000 biara a, ɛma adwumayɛ ne nnipa dodow so tew 0.2%, anaa bɛyɛ adwumayɛfo 3.3, na ɛma akatua so tew 0.42%.[9][56] Nanso mfiridwuma a ebesi nnipa adwuma ananmu ho dadwen yɛ nea ɛtra hɔ kyɛ. Sɛnea U.S. ɔmampanyin Lyndon Johnson kae wɔ 1964 mu no, "Mfiridwuma rebɔ hokwan foforo ne asɛyɛde foforo nyinaa ama yɛn, hokwan a ɛbɛma yɛatumi ayɛ adwuma kɛse na yɛanya nkɔso; asɛyɛde a ɛne sɛ yɛbɛhwɛ ahu sɛ ɛnsɛ sɛ odwumayɛni biara, abusua biara tua bo a ɛnteɛ wɔ nkɔso ho." bere a wɔde wɔn nsa ahyɛ Ɔman Bagua a Ɛhwɛ Mfiridwuma, Mfiridwuma, ne Sikasɛm mu Nkɔso ho mmara ase no.[9][9][9][9][9]

Bammɔ

sesa

Esiane sɛ wɔde wɔn ho to mfiridwuma so kɛse nti, ahobammɔ ne kokoam nsɛm ho haw ahorow aka ho. Nnipa ɔpepepem pii de akwan horow a wɔfa so tua sika wɔ Intanɛt so di dwuma, te sɛ WeChat Pay, PayPal, Alipay, ne nea ɛkeka ho pii de boa ma wɔde sika kɔ baabi foforo. Ɛwom sɛ wɔde ahobammɔ ho nhyehyɛe ahorow si hɔ de, nanso nsɛmmɔnedifo binom tumi twa ho hyia.[57] Wɔ March 2022 mu no, North Korea de Blender.io, mixer a ɛboaa wɔn ma wɔde wɔn cryptocurrency exchanges siee, dii dwuma de hohoro bɛboro $20.5 ɔpepem wɔ cryptocurrency mu, fii Axie Infinity, na wowiaa bɛboro $600 ɔpepem cryptocurrency fii agoru no wura hɔ. Esiane eyi nti, U.S. Sikakorabea Dwumadibea no maa Blender.io a ɛyɛ bere a edi kan a ayɛ ade atia mixer bi no sɛ ɔmmɔ mmɔden sɛ ɔbɛhyɛ North Korea hackers so.[9][9] Wɔagye cryptocurrency kokoamsɛm ho akyinnye. Ɛwom sɛ adetɔfo pii ani gye cryptocurrency kokoam nsɛm ho de, nanso pii nso ka sɛ ehia sɛ wɔyɛ no pefee na ɛyɛ pintinn kɛse.[57]

Nneɛma a atwa yɛn ho ahyia

sesa

Mfiridwuma anya wiase no so nkɛntɛnso bɔne ne nneɛma a atwa yɛn ho ahyia so nkɛntɛnso pa, a mpɛn pii no ɛyɛ nea ɛne ɔsɛe a edi kan no bɔ abira, te sɛ; efi a wɔbɔ ne mmɔden a wɔbɔ sɛ wobeyi efi a wɔaka ho asɛm no afi hɔ,[9] kwae a wotutu ne kwae a wotutu a wɔdan no,[58] ne ngo a wɔhwie gui . Eyinom nyinaa anya nneɛma a atwa yɛn ho ahyia wɔ asase so so nkɛntɛnso kɛse. Bere a mfiridwuma anya nkɔso no, saa ara na nneɛma a atwa yɛn ho ahyia so nkɛntɛnso bɔne no nso anya nkɔso, na mframa a ɛma wim yɛ hyew, te sɛ methane ne carbon dioxide, fi wim, na ɛde wim tebea a ɛma wim yɛ hyew ba, na ɛde nkakrankakra ma asase yɛ hyew na ɛde wiase nyinaa hyew ba. Eyi nyinaa asɛe kɛse bere a mfiridwuma mu nkɔso aba no.[59]

Efiyɛ

sesa

Anka efi, efi a ɛwɔ nneɛma a atwa yɛn ho ahyia a ɛde ɔhaw ahorow ba no betumi aba wɔ Inca ahemman no mu tɔnn . Wɔde kɔbere sulfide a ɛsensɛn aboɔden abo mu, ne dɔte fononoo a mframa bɔ, a ɛma kɔbere kɔ wim ne nsubɔnten mu nsu a ɛyɛ fi no dii dwuma.[60]

Felɔsɔfi

sesa

Mfiridwuma ho nyansapɛ yɛ nyansapɛ baa dwumadibea a ɛsua "adeyɛ a wɔde yɛ nneɛma a wɔde ayɛ nneɛma na wɔyɛ", ne "nneɛma a wɔabɔ saa no su." [61] Ɛda adi sɛ nteɛso wɔ mfeha abien a atwam no mu, na anya nkɔanim "kɛse" fi 1970 mfe no mu.[62] Nnipa ho nyansapɛ a ɛfa mfiridwuma ho no fa "nea mfiridwuma kyerɛ ma, ne nkɛntɛnso a enya wɔ, ɔmanfo ne amammerɛ so" ho.[61]

Mfiase no, na wobu mfiridwuma sɛ onipa abɔde a nkwa wom no ntrɛwmu a ɛyɛ nipadua ne adwene mu tumi ahorow anaasɛ ɛma ɛyɛ kɛse.[63] Marx hyehyɛɛ no sɛ adwinnade a kapitalistfo de di dwuma de hyɛ proletariat so, nanso na ogye di sɛ mfiridwuma bɛyɛ tumi a ɛma ahofadi titiriw bere a "wɔade ne ho afi ɔmanfo mu nsakrae ho" no. Akyiri yi nyansapɛfo a wɔbaa asorɔkye a ɛto so abien te sɛ Ortega danee wɔn adwene fii sikasɛm ne amammuisɛm so kɔɔ “da biara da asetra ne asetra wɔ mfiridwuma-honam fam amammerɛ mu,” na wɔkae sɛ mfiridwuma betumi ahyɛ “bourgeoisie no mufo a wɔkyerɛ sɛ wɔyɛ ne wuranom ne ne wuranom mpo so.” Nyansapɛfo a wɔwɔ ɔfa a ɛto so abiɛsa te sɛ Don Ihde ne Albert Borgmann gyina hɔ ma nsakrae a ɛkɔ de-generalization ne empiricism so, na wosusuw sɛnea nnipa betumi asua sɛnea wɔde mfiridwuma bɛtra ase no ho.[62]

Wɔkyekyɛɛ mfiridwuma ho nimdeɛ a edi kan no mu wɔ akyinnyegye abien mu: mfiridwuma mu determinism, ne asetra mu adansi . Mfiridwuma mu determinism ne adwene a ɛne sɛ mfiridwuma de asetra mu nsakrae a wontumi nkwati ba.[64] : 1 . 95. Ɔde ne nsa kyerɛɛ ne so Mpɛn pii no ɛka akyinnyegye bi a ɛfa ho, mfiridwuma mu ahofadi, a ɛkyerɛ sɛ mfiridwuma mu nkɔso di abɔde mu nkɔso akyi na wontumi nsiw ano.[65] Asetra mu nkɔso ho animdefo </link> ka sɛ mfiridwuma di abɔde mu nkɔso biara akyi, na amammerɛ mu gyinapɛn ahorow, mmara, amammuisɛm, ne sikasɛm mu nkannyan na ɛkyerɛ. Nnɛyi nhomanimfo adan akɔ sociotechnical nhyehyɛe ahorow mu nhwehwɛmu, "nneɛma, nnipa, nneyɛe, ne ntease ahorow a wɔaboaboa ano", a wɔhwɛ bo a ɛsom ho atemmu ahorow a ɛhyehyɛ mfiridwuma.[64]

Amammerɛ ho ɔkasatiafo Neil Postman kyerɛɛ nsonsonoe a ɛda aman a wɔde nnwinnade di dwuma ntam ne nea ɔfrɛɛ no “mfiridwuma” mu, aman a mfiridwuma ne nyansahu mu nkɔso ho adwene bi na ɛhyɛ wɔn so a ɛsɛe amammerɛ mu nneyɛe afoforo, gyinapɛn ahorow, ne wiase adwene ahorow.[66] Herbert Marcuse ne John Zerzan kyerɛ sɛ akyinnye biara nni ho sɛ mfiridwuma mu nnipa bɛma yɛagye yɛn ahofadi ne yɛn adwene mu akwahosan afi yɛn nsam.[67]

Mmara

sesa

Mfiridwuma mu abrabɔ pa yɛ abrabɔ pa ho adesua a ɛwɔ nnwuma ahorow ntam a ɛhwehwɛ mfiridwuma mu abrabɔ pa ho nkyerɛkyerɛmu mu na ɛhwehwɛ akwan a wɔbɛfa so abrɛ nkɛntɛnso bɔne a ebetumi afi mfiridwuma foforo mu aba no ase. Abrabɔ pa ho nsɛm ahodoɔ pii wɔ hɔ a ɛfa mfiridwuma ho, ɛfiri mmeaeɛ pɔtee a wɔde wɔn adwene si so a ɛka adwumayɛfoɔ a wɔde mfiridwuma yɛ adwuma kɔsi asetena, abrabɔ pa, ne mmara mu nsɛm a ɛtrɛ a ɛfa dwumadie a mfiridwuma di wɔ ɔmanfoɔ ne da biara da asetena mu.[68]

Akyinnyegye atitiriw atwa abɔde a nkwa wom a wɔayɛ wɔn awosu mu nsakrae, robɔt asraafo a wɔde di dwuma, algorithmic bias, ne asɛm a ɛfa AI nneyɛe a wɔbɛma ne nnipa gyinapɛn ahorow ahyia ho no ho.[9]

Mfiridwuma mu abrabɔ pa ka nneɛma atitiriw pii ho. Bioethics hwɛ abrabɔ pa ho nsɛm a ɛfa abɔde a nkwa wom ho mfiridwuma ne nnɛyi nnuruyɛ ho, a nea ɛka ho ne cloning, nnipa awosu mu nsakrae, ne stem cell nhwehwɛmu. Kɔmputa so abrabɔ pa twe adwene si nsɛm a ɛfa kɔmputa ho so. Cyberethics hwehwɛ nsɛm a ɛfa intanɛt ho te sɛ adwene mu agyapade hokwan, kokoam nsɛm, ne censorship . Nanoethics hwehwɛ nsɛm a ɛfa nneɛma a ɛsakra wɔ atom ne molecule gyinabea ho wɔ nteɛso ahorow a kɔmputa ho nimdeɛ, mfiridwuma, ne abɔde a nkwa wom ho adesua ka ho mu. Na mfiridwuma mu abrabɔ pa fa mfiridwumayɛfo adwumayɛ gyinapɛn ahorow ho, a softwea mfiridwumayɛfo ne wɔn abrabɔ pa ho asɛyɛde ahorow wɔ ɔmanfo anim ka ho.[69]

Mfiridwuma mu abrabɔ pa baa dwumadibea kɛse bi fa abrabɔ pa a ɛfa nyansa a wɔde yɛ nneɛma ho : ɛka robɔt abrabɔ pa, a ɛfa abrabɔ pa ho nsɛm a ɛfa robɔt nhyehyɛe, ne si, ne di, ne ne ayaresa ho,[70] ne mfiri abrabɔ pa, a ɛyɛ a ɛhaw no sɛ wɔbɛhwɛ ma wɔayɛ abrabɔ pa wɔ nnuru a wɔde nyansa a wɔde ayɛ nneɛma mu no ho .[71] Wɔ AI abrabɔ pa ho nsɛm mu no, nhwehwɛmu mu ɔhaw atitiriw a wonnya nnii ho dwuma no bi ne AI a ɛne ne ho hyia (a wɔhwɛ hu sɛ AI nneyɛe ne wɔn abɔfo no botae ne wɔn anigyede ahorow a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ no hyia) ne algorithmic bias a wɔtew so . Nhwehwɛmufo binom abɔ kɔkɔ wɔ asiane a wosusuw sɛ ɛwɔ AI a wɔbɛfa mu no ho, na wɔakamfo AI tumi sohwɛ a wɔde bedi dwuma nka akwan a wɔfa so de AI hyia no ho

Daakye ho adesua

sesa

Daakye adesua yɛ nhyehyɛe ne nnwuma ahorow ntam adesua a ɛfa asetra ne mfiridwuma mu nkɔso ho. Ɛde asi n’ani so sɛ ɛbɛhwehwɛ daakye a ɛyɛ nokware no mu wɔ dodow ne su mu na ɛde nnipa gyinapɛn ahorow ahyɛ mfiridwuma foforo a wɔbɛyɛ mu.[72] : 1 . 54. Ɔde ne nsa kyerɛɛ ne so Mpɛn pii no, daakye ho nhwehwɛmufo ani gye ho sɛ wɔbɛma "adesamma ahofadi ne yiyedi" atu mpɔn.[72] : 1 . 73. Nkyekyɛm Ɛde ne ho to dodow ne su mu nhwehwɛmu a edi mũ a ɛfa mfiridwuma mu nkɔso a atwam ne mprempren ho so, na ɛbɔ mmɔden sɛ ɛde katee bɛka ho asɛm akɔ daakye.[72] Wɔtaa de nyansahu mu ayɛsɛm di dwuma sɛ adwene fibea.[72] : 1 . 173. Nkyekyɛm Daakye nhwehwɛmu akwan no bi ne nhwehwɛmu nhwehwɛmu, nhwɛsode, akontaabu nhwehwɛmu, ne kɔmputa so mfoniniyɛ .[72] : 1 . 187 na ɛwɔ hɔ .

Kɔmputa

sesa

Kɔmputa yɛ afiri a wobetumi ayɛ ho nhyehyɛe sɛ ɛbɛyɛ akontaabu anaa ntease dwumadi ahorow ( akontaabu ) nnidiso nnidiso. Nnɛyi dijitaal ɛlɛtrɔnik kɔmputa ahorow tumi yɛ adwuma ahorow a wɔfrɛ no program ahorow a ɛyɛ ne nyinaa . Saa nhyehyɛe ahorow yi ma kɔmputa ahorow tumi yɛ nnwuma ahorow pii. Kɔmputa nhyehyɛe yɛ kɔmputa a edi mũ a wɔfrɛ no hardware, operating system (main software ), ne peripheral equipment a wohia na wɔde di dwuma ma ɛyɛ adwuma koraa ka ho. Saa asɛmfua yi nso betumi akyerɛ kɔmputa kuw bi a ɛka bom na ɛyɛ adwuma bom, te sɛ kɔmputa ntam nkitahodi anaa kɔmputa akuw .

Mfiridwuma ne adetɔfo nneɛma ahorow pii de kɔmputa di dwuma sɛ nhyehyɛe a wɔde di dwuma . Wɔde mfiri a ɛnyɛ den a wɔde di dwuma titiriw te sɛ microwave oven ne remote control ka ho, na saa ara na mfiri a wɔde yɛ adwumayɛbea te sɛ mfiridwuma mu robɔt ne kɔmputa a wɔde boa adwini, ne mfiri a wɔde di dwuma wɔ ɔkwan a ɛkɔ akyiri so te sɛ ankorankoro kɔmputa ne mfiri a wɔde di dwuma wɔ telefon so te sɛ smartphone . Kɔmputa na ɛma Intanɛt, a ɛka kɔmputa afoforo ne wɔn a wɔde di dwuma ɔpepepem pii bom no nya ahoɔden.

Na wɔayɛ sɛ wɔde kɔmputa a edi kan no bɛyɛ akontaabu nkutoo. Nnwinnade a wɔde nsa yɛ a ɛnyɛ den te sɛ abacus aboa nkurɔfo ma wɔabu akontaa fi tete. Wɔ Mfiridwuma mu Ɔsesɛw no mfiase no, wɔyɛɛ mfiri ahorow bi a wɔde bɛyɛ nnwuma atenten a ɛyɛ den, te sɛ nsusuwso ahorow a wɔkyerɛ kwan ma ntamadan . Ɛlektrik mfiri a ɛyɛ nwonwa kɛse yɛɛ analog akontaabu titiriw wɔ afeha a ɛto so 20 mfiase mu hɔ. Wɔyɛɛ dijitaal ɛlɛtrɔnik mfiri a edi kan a wɔde bu akontaa wɔ Wiase Ko II mu . Semiconductor transistors a edi kan wɔ 1940 mfeɛ no awieeɛ no, silicon -based MOSFET (MOS transistor) ne monolithic integrated circuit chip mfiridwuma dii akyire wɔ 1950 mfeɛ no awieeɛ mu, na ɛde microprocessor ne microcomputer nsakraeɛ baeɛ wɔ 1970 mfeɛ no mu. Kɔmputa ahoɔhare, ahoɔden ne sɛnea ɛyɛ adwuma wɔ mmeae pii no akɔ soro kɛse fi saa bere no, na transistor dodow akɔ soro ntɛmntɛm (sɛnea Moore mmara kyerɛe no ), na ɛde Digital Revolution bae wɔ afeha a ɛto so 20 awiei kosi 21 mfiase mu hɔ.

Sɛnea wɔtaa yɛ no, anyɛ yiye koraa no, nnɛyi kɔmputa yɛ ade biako a wɔde yɛ adwuma, a mpɛn pii no ɛyɛ central processing unit (CPU) a ɛte sɛ microprocessor, ne kɔmputa memory bi, a mpɛn pii no ɛyɛ semiconductor memory chips. Ade a wɔde yɛ adwuma no yɛ akontaabu ne ntease mu dwumadi ahorow, na nhyehyɛe a wɔde di dwuma nnidiso nnidiso ne nea wɔde di dwuma no betumi asesa nhyehyɛe a wɔde yɛ adwuma no de abua nsɛm a wɔde asie . Mfiri a ɛwɔ akyirikyiri no bi ne mfiri a wɔde hyɛ mu (keyboards, mice, joystick, ne nea ɛkeka ho), mfiri a wɔde fi mu (monitor screens, printers, ne nea ɛkeka ho), ne mfiri a wɔde hyɛ mu/fi mu a ɛyɛ adwuma abien no nyinaa (sɛ nhwɛso no, 2000 mfe no mu touchscreen ). Peripheral devices ma kwan ma wogye nsɛm fi abɔnten fibea na ɛma wotumi sie nea efi adwumayɛ mu ba no so na wogye.

Etymology ho adesua

sesa
 
Onipa kɔmputa, a microscope ne calculator wom, 1952

Sɛnea Oxford English Dictionary kyerɛ no, nea edi kan a wonim sɛ wɔde kɔmputa dii dwuma ne nhoma bi a Engiresi kyerɛwfo Richard Brathwait kyerɛwee wɔ 1613 mu a wɔfrɛ no The Yong Mans Gleanings : “I haue.” [ kenkan Times kɔmputa a ɛyɛ nokware sen biara, ne Akontaabu ho nimdefo a oye sen biara a euer [ homee, na ɔtew wo nna so ma ɛyɛ tiaa." Na asɛmfua a wɔde dii dwuma yi kyerɛ onipa kɔmputa, obi a ɔyɛ akontaabu anaa akontaabu. Asɛmfua no kɔɔ so nyaa ntease koro no ara kosii afeha a ɛto so 20 mfinimfini. Wɔ saa bere yi fa a etwa to no mu no, na wɔtaa fa mmea sɛ kɔmputa efisɛ na wotumi tua wɔn ka a ɛba fam sen wɔn mfɛfo mmarima. [1] Eduu afe 1943 no, na nnipa kɔmputa dodow no ara yɛ mmea. [2]

Online Etymology Dictionary de kɔmputa a edi kan a wɔadi ho adanse sɛ wɔde dii dwuma wɔ 1640 mfe no mu ma, a ɛkyerɛ ‘obi a obu akontaa’; eyi yɛ "agent noun a efi compute (v. )". Online Etymology Dictionary ka sɛ asɛmfua no a wɔde dii dwuma de kyerɛ " akontaabu afiri' (a ɛyɛ ɔkwan biara so) no fi 1897." Online Etymology Dictionary kyerɛ sɛ "nnɛyi dwumadie" a wɔde asɛmfua no di dwuma, sɛ ɛkyerɛ 'digyital ɛlɛtrɔnik kɔmputa a wɔtumi yɛ ho nhyehyɛeɛ' no firi "1945 wɔ saa din yi ase; [wɔ] nsusuiɛ [nteaseɛ mu] firi 1937, sɛ Turing afiri [9]

Ansa na afeha a ɛto so 20 reba

sesa
 
Ishango dompe, nnompe adwinnade a efi Afrika ansa na abakɔsɛm reba

Wɔde mfiri adi dwuma de aboa akontaabu mfe mpempem pii, na ne fa kɛse no ara de nsateaa a wɔde kyerɛw nsɛm a ɛyɛ biako ne biako na edi dwuma . Ɛda adi kɛse sɛ na mfiri a edi kan a wɔde kan akontaa no yɛ tally stick bi . Akyiri yi mmoa a wɔde sie kyerɛwtohɔ wɔ Fertile Crescent no nyinaa mu no bi ne calculi (dɔte kurukuruwa, cone, ne nea ɛkeka ho) a egyina hɔ ma nneɛma dodow, a ɛbɛyɛ sɛ mmoa anaa aburow, a wɔatoto mu wɔ dɔte nkuku a tokuru a wɔantow mu. [lower-alpha 1] [73] Nkontaabu a wɔde di dwuma no yɛ nhwɛso biako.

 
Chinafo suanpan (算盘</link> ). Dodow a wɔde gyina hɔ ma wɔ abacus yi so no yɛ 6,302,715,408.

Mfiase no na wɔde abacus no yɛ akontaabu ho nnwuma. Wɔde mfiri a wɔde dii dwuma wɔ Babilon wɔ afe 2400 A.Y.B. Efi saa bere no, wɔayɛ akontaabu kyerɛwpon anaa apon afoforo pii. Wɔ mfinimfini mmere mu Europafo akontaabu dan bi mu no, na wɔde ntama a wɔakyerɛw so sisi pon so, na wɔde agyiraehyɛde ahorow di akɔneaba wɔ so sɛnea mmara ahorow bi kyerɛ, sɛ mmoa a wɔde bu sika dodow ho akontaa.[74]

 
Antikythera afiri, a efi tete Hela bɛyɛ afe 150–100 A.Y.B.

Sɛnea Derek J. de Solla Price kyerɛ no wogye di sɛ Antikythera afiri no ne kɔmputa a wɔde yɛ mfiri a edi kan a wonim no .[75] Wɔyɛɛ no sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ a wobebu nsoromma mu hwɛbea ahorow ho akontaa. Wohuu no wɔ 1901 mu wɔ Antikythera po so hyɛn a asɛe wɔ Hela supɔw Antikythera so a ɛda Kythera ne Crete ntam no mu, na wɔakyerɛ sɛ ɛyɛ bɛyɛ c. 100 A.Y.B. Na mfiri a ɛyɛ den sɛ wɔde toto Antikythera adwinnade no ho no rensan mma bio kosi afeha a ɛto so dunan no mu.[76]

Wɔyɛɛ mfiri pii a wɔde boa akontaabu ne susuw de dii dwuma wɔ nsoromma mu hwɛ ne po so hyɛn mu. Na planisphere yɛ nsoromma ho mfonini a Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī yɛe wɔ afeha a ɛto so 11 mfiase.[77] Wɔyɛɛ nsoromma mu hwɛbea no wɔ Helafo wiase no mu wɔ afeha a ɛto so 1 anaa 2 A.Y.B. Na nsoromma mu hwɛbea no yɛ planisphere ne dioptra a wɔaka abom no yɛ kɔmputa a wɔde di dwuma wɔ ɔkwan a etu mpɔn so a etumi di ɔhaw ahorow pii ho dwuma wɔ nsoromma mu hwɛ a ɛyɛ kurukuruwa mu . Abi Bakr a [78] Isfahan, Persia na ɔyɛɛ nsoromma mu hwɛbea bi a mfiri kalenda kɔmputa [79][80] ne gear -wheels ka ho wɔ afe 1235 mu. Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī na ɔyɛɛ lunisolar kalenda astrolabe a edi kan a wɔde mfiri ayɛ geared,[81] mfitiase afiri a wɔde di dwuma wɔ nimdeɛ a wɔde nhama a ɛyɛ pintinn ayɛ [82] a ɛwɔ gya keteke ne gya-ntwahonan,[83] c. 1000 Y.B.

Wɔyɛɛ sector, adwinnade a wɔde bu akontaa a wɔde di ɔhaw ahorow ho dwuma wɔ nsusuwii, trigonometry, dodow ne mpaapaemu mu, ne dwumadi ahorow te sɛ ahinanan ne kuruwa ntini, wɔ afeha a ɛto so 16 awiei mu hɔ na wɔde dii dwuma wɔ atuo a wɔde di dwuma, nhwehwɛmu ne po so hyɛn mu.

Na planimeter no yɛ adwinnade a wɔde nsa yɛ a wɔde bu akontaa fa mfonini a wɔato mu no kɛse ho denam mfiri a wɔde di nkitaho a wɔde hwehwɛ so.

Wɔ 1770 mfe no mu no, Pierre Jaquet-Droz, Switzerlandni dɔn yɛfo bi yɛɛ mfiri doll ( automaton ) a otumi kyerɛw a okura quill pen. Ɛdenam ne mu ntwahonan dodow ne nhyehyɛe a wɔbɛsesa so no, na wobetumi ayɛ nkyerɛwde ahorow, na ɛno nti nkrasɛm ahorow. Sɛ yɛbɛka a, na wobetumi de mfiri "ayɛ nhyehyɛe" de akenkan akwankyerɛ. Abofraa no ne mfiri afoforo abien a ɛyɛ den no wɔ Musée d’Art et d’Histoire a ɛwɔ Neuchâtel, Switzerland, na ɛda so ara yɛ adwuma.[9]

Wɔ 1831–1835 mu no, akontaabufo ne mfiridwumayɛfo Giovanni Plana yɛɛ Perpetual Calendar afiri bi, a ɛnam nhyehyɛe bi a ɛyɛ pulleys ne cylinders ne nea ɛboro saa so tumi kyerɛ daa kalenda a ɛbɛba afe biara fi 0 Y.B.(kyerɛ sɛ, 1 A.Y.B.) kosi 4000 Y.B. mfe a ɛboro so ne da tenten a ɛsonosonoe a wɔbɛhwɛ so. Afiri a ɛkyerɛ asorɔkye a Scotlandni nyansahufo Sir William Thomson yɛe wɔ 1872 mu no ho wɔ mfaso kɛse ma po so hyɛn a wɔde fa nsu a emu nnɔ mu. Ɛde nhyehyɛe bi a wɔde twe ne nhama dii dwuma de buu asorɔkye dodow a wɔahyɛ ho nkɔm wɔ bere pɔtee bi mu wɔ beae pɔtee bi no ho akontaa ankasa.

Differential analyser, kɔmputa a wɔde di dwuma wɔ mfiri a wɔde yɛ analog a wɔayɛ sɛ wɔde bedi differential equations ho dwuma denam nkabom so, de ntwahonan ne diski mfiri dii dwuma de yɛɛ nkabom no. Wɔ 1876 mu no, na Owura William Thomson aka sɛnea wobetumi ayɛ akontaabu mfiri a ɛtete saa ho asɛm dedaw, nanso na bɔɔl ne disk a wɔde bom no ahoɔden kakraa bi a ɛde ba no asiw no kwan .[84] Wɔ differential analyzer mu no, integrator biako output na ɛma integrator a edi hɔ no input, anaasɛ graphing output. Torque amplifier no ne nkɔso a ɛmaa saa mfiri yi tumi yɛɛ adwuma. Efi 1920 mfe no mu no, Vannevar Bush ne afoforo yɛɛ mfiri a wɔde hwehwɛ nsonsonoe mu.

 
Slide mmara bi

Kɔmputa a edi kan

sesa
 
Charles Babbage wɔ afe 1990 mu. 1850 mu

Charles Babbage, Engiresini mfiridwuma ho nimdefo ne polymath, na ɔde kɔmputa a wotumi yɛ ho nhyehyɛe ho adwene no bae. Wobu no sɛ " kɔmputa agya ",[85] ɔno na ɔyɛɛ adwene na ɔyɛɛ mfiri kɔmputa a edi kan wɔ afeha a ɛto so 19 mfiase.

Bere a ɔyɛɛ adwuma wɔ ne nsonsonoe engine no akyi no ɔde nea ɔyɛe no too gua wɔ afe 1822 mu, wɔ krataa bi a ɔkyerɛw kɔmaa Royal Astronomical Society, a wɔtoo din "Hyɛ no nsow wɔ mfiri a wɔde di dwuma wɔ nsoromma mu hwɛ ne akontaabu pon ahorow ho akontaabu mu",[9] ɔsan nso yɛɛ nhyehyɛe sɛ ɛbɛboa wɔ akwantu mu akontaabu mu no, wɔ 1833 mu no ohui sɛ wobetumi ayɛ nhyehyɛe a ɛkɔ akyiri koraa, engine a wɔde hwehwɛ nneɛma mu ,. Na ɛsɛ sɛ wɔde nhyehyɛe ne data a wɔde bɛhyɛ afiri no mu no ma denam kaad a wɔabɔ no akuturuku so, na na ɔkwan bi a wɔfa so kyerɛ mfiri a wɔde ntama nneɛma te sɛ Jacquard ntamadan kwan saa bere no . Sɛ wɔde output a, anka afiri no benya printa, curve plotter ne dɔn. Na afiri no nso betumi abɔ nɔma ahorow agu nkrataa so akenkan akyiri yi. Engine no de akontaabu mu ntease unit, control flow wɔ conditional branching ne loops kwan so, ne integrated memory kaa ho, na ɛmaa ɛyɛɛ nhyehyɛe a edi kan a wɔde yɛɛ kɔmputa a wɔde di dwuma wɔ ɔkwan a ɛkɔ akyiri so a wobetumi aka ho asɛm wɔ nnɛyi nsɛm mu sɛ Turing-complete [9][9]

Na afiri no adi ne bere so bɛyɛ mfe ɔha. Na ɛsɛ sɛ wɔde nsa na ɛyɛ n’afiri no afa horow nyinaa – na eyi yɛ ɔhaw kɛse ma afiri a ɛwɔ afa mpempem pii. Awiei koraa no, wogyaee adwuma no bere a Britania Aban sii gyinae sɛ wobegyae sika a wɔde ma no. Wobetumi aka sɛ Babbage antumi anwie nhwehwɛmu engine no titiriw ne amammui ne sikasɛm mu nsɛnnennen ne ɔpɛ a ɔwɔ sɛ ɔbɛyɛ kɔmputa a ɛrenya nkɔanim na wakɔ n’anim ntɛmntɛm sen sɛnea obi foforo biara betumi adi akyi no. Ne nyinaa mu no, ne babarima, Henry Babbage, wiee nhwehwɛmu engine no kɔmputa dwumadibea (afiri a wɔde yɛ nneɛma ) a wɔayɛ no mmerɛw no wɔ 1888 mu. Ɔyɛɛ sɛnea wɔde di dwuma wɔ kɔmputa so pon so ho ɔyɛkyerɛ a edii yiye wɔ 1906 mu.

Wɔ n’adwuma Essays on Automatics a wotintimii wɔ 1914 mu no, Spain mfiridwumayɛfo Leonardo Torres Quevedo kyerɛw abakɔsɛm tiawa bi a ɛfa mmɔden a Babbage bɔe sɛ ɔbɛyɛ mfiri a wɔde yɛ Difference Engine ne Analytical Engine ho. Ɔkaa Analytical Engine ho asɛm sɛ ɛyɛ ne nsusuwii ahorow a ɛfa tumi a mfiri betumi anya ho nhwɛso, na ɔfa ɔhaw a ɛne sɛ wɔbɛyɛ engine a ɛte saa no sɛ ɛyɛ asɛnnennen ma n’ahokokwaw sɛ obi a ɔyɛɛ mfiri a wɔde anyinam ahoɔden yɛ adwuma. Krataa no kura afiri bi a etumi bu bo a ɛsom wɔ ɔkwan a wɔfa so yɛ no so koraa, ma nsakrae ahorow a ɛka ho no botae ahorow a wɔahyehyɛ no nnidiso nnidiso. Na ɛsɛ sɛ wɔde nhyehyɛe bi a wɔkenkan nkutoo na ɛhwɛ afiri no nyinaa so, a na nhyehyɛe ahorow a ɛfa nkorabata a wɔde tebea bi ahyɛ mu ho awie . Ɔde akontaabu a ɛsensɛn nsu so ho adwene nso bae .[86][87] Wɔ 1920 mu, sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ na Torres redi akontaabu kyerɛwtohɔ a wɔyɛe no mfe 100 afahyɛ no, ɔde Electromechanical Arithmometer, nhwɛsode bi a wɔde relay ahorow dii dwuma de dii akontaabu afiri bi a wɔde abɔ afiri a wɔde kyerɛw nsɛm (ebia ɛwɔ akyirikyiri) a na ahyɛde ahorow wɔ so no dwumadi ahorow ho dwuma no mae wɔ Paris typed na nea efii mu bae no tintim automatic. [23] [88] [25]

Analog kɔmputa ahorow

sesa
 
Sir William Thomson ’s afiri a ɛto so abiɛsa a ɛkyerɛ asorɔkye a ɛbɛba, 1879–81

Wɔ afeha a ɛto so 20 no fa a edi kan no mu no, wɔde kɔmputa a wɔde di dwuma wɔ ɔkwan a ɛyɛ nwonwa so a ɛrenya nkɔanim kɛse na edii nyansahu mu kɔmputa ho ahiade pii ho dwuma, na ɛde ɔhaw no ho mfonini a wɔde mfiri anaa anyinam ahoɔden yɛ tẽẽ dii dwuma sɛ nea wogyina so yɛ akontaabu . Nanso, na eyinom nyɛ nea wotumi yɛ ho nhyehyɛe na mpɛn pii no na enni nnɛyi dijitaal kɔmputa ahorow a wotumi de di dwuma wɔ mmeae pii na ɛyɛ pɛpɛɛpɛ no.[89] Nnɛyi kɔmputa a edi kan a wɔde yɛ analog ne afiri a ɛkyerɛ sɛnea asorɔkye bɛba, a Owura William Thomson (akyiri yi ɔbɛyɛɛ Lord Kelvin) na ɔyɛe wɔ 1872 mu. James Thomson, Owura William Thomson a wagye din kɛse no nuabarima panyin na ɔyɛɛ differential analyzer, kɔmputa a wɔde mfiri yɛ a wɔayɛ sɛ wɔde bedi differential equations ho dwuma denam ntwahonan ne diski mfiri a wɔde ka bom so no ho adwene wɔ 1876 mu.[84]

Adwinni a ɛfa mfiri a wɔde yɛ analog kɔmputa ho no duu ne sorosoro denam differential analyser, a H. L. Hazen ne Vannevar Bush yɛe wɔ MIT fi 1927 mu no so. Eyi de James Thomson mfiri a ɛka bom ne torque amplifiers a H. W. Nieman yɛe no sii so. Wɔyɛɛ saa mfiri yi dumien ansa na wɔn dedaw reda adi. Eduu 1950 mfe no mu no, na dijitaal ɛlɛtrɔnik kɔmputa ahorow a edii yiye no akyerɛ sɛ analog kɔmputa mfiri dodow no ara baa awiei, nanso wɔkɔɔ so de analog kɔmputa dii dwuma wɔ 1950 mfe no mu wɔ nneɛma titiriw bi te sɛ nhomasua ( slide rule ) ne wimhyɛn ( control systems ) mu.

Digitals kɔmputa ahorow

sesa

Eduu 1938 no, na United States Po so Asraafo ayɛ kɔmputa bi a wɔde anyinam ahoɔden yɛ a ɛne ne ho di nsɛ a ɛyɛ ketewaa bi a wobetumi de adi dwuma wɔ po ase akohyɛn mu . Na eyi ne Torpedo Data Computer, a ɛde trigonometry dii dwuma de dii ɔhaw a ɛne sɛ wɔbɛtow torpedo agu baabi a ɛrekɔ so no ho dwuma. Wɔ Wiase Ko II mu no, wɔyɛɛ mfiri a ɛte saa ara wɔ aman afoforo so nso.

 
Konrad Zuse ’s Z3, kɔmputa a edi kan a ɛyɛ adwuma koraa, dijitaal (electromechanical) no nsɛso

Na dijitaal kɔmputa ahorow a edi kan no yɛ anyinam ahoɔden mfiri ; anyinam ahoɔden switch ahorow na ɛmaa mfiri relay ahorow yɛɛ akontaabu no. Na saa mfiri yi ntumi nyɛ adwuma ntɛmntɛm na awiei koraa no, wɔde kɔmputa a ɛyɛ ntɛm kɛse a anyinam ahoɔden nyinaa na ɛyɛ adwuma, a mfiase no na wɔde vacuum tubes na esii ananmu . Z2, a Germanni mfiridwumayɛfo Konrad Zuse yɛe wɔ 1939 mu wɔ Berlin, yɛ kɔmputa a wɔde anyinam ahoɔden mfiri a wɔde fa nneɛma kɔ baabi foforo ho nhwɛso a edi kan no mu biako.[9]

 
Konrad Zuse, a ɔyɛɛ nnɛyi kɔmputa [9][9]

Beaeɛ A Menyaa Mmoa Firiiɛ

sesa
  1. ↑ Skolnikoff, Eugene B. (1993). The Elusive Transformation: Science, Technology, and the Evolution of International Politics. Princeton University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0691037707. JSTOR j.ctt7rpm1.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Salomon, Jean‐Jacques (1 January 1984). "What is technology? The issue of its origins and definitions". History and Technology. 1 (2): 113–156. doi:10.1080/07341518408581618. ISSN 0734-1512. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
  3. ↑ Mitcham, C. (1994). Thinking Through Technology: The Path Between Engineering and Philosophy. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226531984.
  4. ↑ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1980). A Greek-English Lexicon (Abridged ed.). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199102075.
  5. ↑ Simpson, J.; Weiner, Edmund, eds. (1989). "technology". The Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198611868.
  6. ↑ Aristotle (2009). Brown, L. (ed.). The Nicomachean Ethics. Oxford World's Classics. Translated by Ross, D. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-0199213610. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
  7. ↑ Schatzberg, Eric (2006). ""Technik" Comes to America: Changing Meanings of "Technology" before 1930". Technology and Culture. 47 (3): 486–512. doi:10.1353/tech.2006.0201. ISSN 0040-165X. JSTOR 40061169. S2CID 143784033. Archived from the original on 10 September 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
  8. ↑ Schiffer, M. B. (2013). "Discovery Processes: Trial Models". The Archaeology of Science: Studying the Creation of Useful Knowledge. Manuals in Archaeological Method, Theory and Technique. Vol. 9. Heidelberg: Springer International Publishing. pp. 185–198. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-00077-0_13. ISBN 978-3319000770. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
  9. ↑ 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 9.17 9.18 9.19 9.20 9.21 9.22 9.23 9.24 9.25 9.26 {{cite web}}: Empty citation (help)
  10. ↑ Crump, Thomas (2001). A Brief History of Science. Constable & Robinson. p. 9. ISBN 978-1841192352.
  11. ↑ Gowlett, J. A. J.; Wrangham, R. W. (1 March 2013). "Earliest fire in Africa: towards the convergence of archaeological evidence and the cooking hypothesis". Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa. 48 (1): 5–30. doi:10.1080/0067270X.2012.756754. ISSN 0067-270X. S2CID 163033909.
  12. ↑ Stahl, Ann B. (1984). "Hominid dietary selection before fire". Current Anthropology. 25 (2): 151–68. doi:10.1086/203106. JSTOR 2742818. S2CID 84337150.
  13. ↑ Wrangham, R. (1 August 2017). "Control of Fire in the Paleolithic: Evaluating the Cooking Hypothesis". Current Anthropology. 58 (S16): S303–S313. doi:10.1086/692113. ISSN 0011-3204. S2CID 148798286. Archived from the original on 10 September 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
  14. ↑ Dunbar, R. I. M.; Gamble, C.; Gowlett, J. A. J., eds. (2014). Lucy to Language: the Benchmark Papers. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199652594. OCLC 1124046527. Archived from the original on 14 August 2020. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 {{cite news}}: Empty citation (help)
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Shaar, Ron; Matmon, Ari; Horwitz, Liora K.; Ebert, Yael; Chazan, Michael; Arnold, M.; Aumaître, G.; Bourlès, D.; Keddadouche, K. (1 May 2021). "Magnetostratigraphy and cosmogenic dating of Wonderwerk Cave: New constraints for the chronology of the South African Earlier Stone Age". Quaternary Science Reviews. 259: 106907. Bibcode:2021QSRv..25906907S. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.106907. ISSN 0277-3791. S2CID 234833092.
  17. ↑ Hallett, Emily Y.; Marean, Curtis W.; Steele, Teresa E.; alvarez-Fernandez, Esteban; Jacobs, Zenobia; Cerasoni, Jacopo Niccolò; Aldeias, Vera; Scerri, Eleanor M. L.; Olszewski, Deborah I.; Hajraoui, Mohamed Abdeljalil El; Dibble, Harold L. (24 September 2021). "A worked bone assemblage from 120,000–90,000 year old deposits at Contrebandiers Cave, Atlantic Coast, Morocco". iScience. 24 (9): 102988. Bibcode:2021iSci...24j2988H. doi:10.1016/j.isci.2021.102988. ISSN 2589-0042. PMC 8478944. PMID 34622180.
  18. ↑ Villa, Paola (1983). Terra Amata and the Middle Pleistocene archaeological record of southern France. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 303. ISBN 978-0520096622.
  19. ↑ Cordaux, Richard; Stoneking, Mark (2003). "South Asia, the Andamanese, and the Genetic Evidence for an 'Early' Human Dispersal out of Africa" (PDF). American Journal of Human Genetics. 72 (6): 1586–1590, author reply 1590–93. doi:10.1086/375407. PMC 1180321. PMID 12817589. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 October 2009. Retrieved 22 May 2007.
  20. ↑ Harvati, Katerina; Röding, Carolin; Bosman, Abel M.; Karakostis, Fotios A.; Grün, Rainer; Stringer, Chris; Karkanas, Panagiotis; Thompson, Nicholas C.; Koutoulidis, Vassilis; Moulopoulos, Lia A.; Gorgoulis, Vassilis G.; Kouloukoussa, Mirsini (2019). "Apidima Cave fossils provide earliest evidence of Homo sapiens in Eurasia". Nature. Springer Science and Business Media LLC. 571 (7766): 500–504. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1376-z. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 31292546. S2CID 195873640. Archived from the original on 1 August 2022. Retrieved 17 September 2022.
  21. ↑ Kuijt, i., ed. (2002). Life in Neolithic Farming Communities: Social Organization, Identity, and Differentiation. Fundamental Issues in Archaeology. Springer New York. ISBN 9780306471667. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 13 September 2022.
  22. ↑ Coghlan, H. H. (1943). "The Evolution of the Axe from Prehistoric to Roman Times". The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 73 (1/2): 27–56. doi:10.2307/2844356. ISSN 0307-3114. JSTOR 2844356. Archived from the original on 26 September 2022. Retrieved 26 September 2022.
  23. ↑ Driscoll, Killian (2006). The early prehistory in the west of Ireland: Investigations into the social archaeology of the Mesolithic, west of the Shannon, Ireland. Archived from the original on 4 September 2017. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
  24. ↑ Sussman, Robert W.; Hall, Roberta L. (April 1972). "Child Transport, Family Size, and Increase in Human Population During the Neolithic". Current Anthropology. 13 (2): 258–267. doi:10.1086/201274. JSTOR 2740977. S2CID 143449170.
  25. ↑ Ferraro, Gary P. (2006). Cultural Anthropology: An Applied Perspective. The Thomson Corporation. ISBN 978-0495030393. Archived from the original on 31 March 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2008.
  26. ↑ Patterson, Gordon M. (1992). The Essentials of Ancient History. Research & Education Association. ISBN 978-0878917044. Archived from the original on 31 March 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2008.
  27. ↑ Cramb, Alan W (1964). "A Short History of Metals". Nature. 203 (4943): 337. Bibcode:1964Natur.203Q.337T. doi:10.1038/203337a0. S2CID 382712.
  28. ↑ Nhwɛsoɔ:Cite EB1911
  29. ↑ Akanuma, Hideo. "The significance of the composition of excavated iron fragments taken from Stratum III at the site of Kaman-Kalehöyük, Turkey". Anatolian Archaeological Studies. Tokyo: Japanese Institute of Anatolian Archaeology. 14.
  30. ↑ Usai, Donatella; Salvatori, Sandro. "The oldest representation of a Nile boat". Antiquity. 81.
  31. ↑ Postel, Sandra (1999). "Egypt's Nile Valley Basin Irrigation". Pillar of Sand: Can the Irrigation Miracle Last?. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0393319378. Archived from the original on 19 November 2020. Retrieved 25 September 2022.
  32. ↑ Crawford, Harriet (2013). The Sumerian World. New York & London: Routledge. pp. 34–43. ISBN 978-0203096604. Archived from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
  33. ↑ Potts, D.T. (2012). A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. p. 285.
  34. ↑ Childe, V. Gordon (1928). New Light on the Most Ancient East. p. 110.
  35. ↑ Anthony, David A. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 67. ISBN 978-0691058870.
  36. ↑ Kramer, Samuel Noah (1963). The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 290. ISBN 978-0226452388. Archived from the original on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Moorey, Peter Roger Stuart (1999) [1994]. Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. p. 146. ISBN 978-1575060422. Archived from the original on 17 October 2017. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Lay, M G (1992). Ways of the World. Sydney: Primavera Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-1875368051.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 39.4 39.5 39.6 Gregersen, Erik (2012). The Complete History of Wheeled Transportation: From Cars and Trucks to Buses and Bikes. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 130. ISBN 978-1615307012. Archived from the original on 31 March 2021. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 Eslamian, Saeid (2014). Handbook of Engineering Hydrology: Environmental Hydrology and Water Management. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. pp. 171–175. ISBN 978-1466552500. Archived from the original on 10 December 2020. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 41.4 Lechner, Norbert (2012). Plumbing, Electricity, Acoustics: Sustainable Design Methods for Architecture. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 106. ISBN 978-1118014752. Archived from the original on 31 March 2021. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 42.3 42.4 42.5 Aicher, Peter J. (1995). Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc. p. 6. ISBN 978-0865162822. Archived from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
  43. ↑ Davids, K.; De Munck, B., eds. (2019). Innovation and Creativity in Late Medieval and Early Modern European Cities. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315588605. ISBN 978-1317116530. S2CID 148764971. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
  44. ↑ Deming, D. (2014). Science and Technology in World History, Volume 3: The Black Death, the Renaissance, the Reformation and the Scientific Revolution. McFarland. ISBN 978-0786490868.
  45. ↑ Stearns, P. N. (2020). The Industrial Revolution in World History. Routledge. ISBN 978-0813347295.
  46. ↑ Black, B. C. (2022). To Have and Have Not: Energy in World History. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1538105047. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
  47. ↑ Albion, Robert G. (1933-01-01). "The Communication Revolution, 1760-1933". Transactions of the Newcomen Society. 14 (1): 13–25. doi:10.1179/tns.1933.002. ISSN 0372-0187. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 26 September 2022.
  48. ↑ Agar, J. (2012). Science in the 20th Century and Beyond. Polity. ISBN 978-0745634692. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
  49. ↑ Goldin, C.; Katz, L. F. (2010). The Race between Education and Technology. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674037731. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
  50. ↑ Solow, Robert M. (1957). "Technical Change and the Aggregate Production Function". The Review of Economics and Statistics. 39 (3): 312–320. doi:10.2307/1926047. ISSN 0034-6535. JSTOR 1926047.
  51. ↑ Bresnahan, Timothy F.; Trajtenberg, M. (1995-01-01). "General purpose technologies 'Engines of growth'?". Journal of Econometrics. 65 (1): 83–108. doi:10.1016/0304-4076(94)01598-T. ISSN 0304-4076.
  52. ↑ Wrigley, E. A (2013-03-13). "Energy and the English Industrial Revolution". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 371 (1986): 20110568. Bibcode:2013RSPTA.37110568W. doi:10.1098/rsta.2011.0568. PMID 23359739. S2CID 10624423.
  53. ↑ Persily, Nathaniel; Tucker, Joshua A., eds. (2020). Social Media and Democracy: The State of the Field, Prospects for Reform. SSRC Anxieties of Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108890960. ISBN 978-1108835558. S2CID 243715477.
  54. ↑ Autor, D. H. (2015). "Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 29 (3): 3–30. doi:10.1257/jep.29.3.3. Archived from the original on 1 September 2022.
  55. ↑ Bessen, J. E. (2016-10-03). "How Computer Automation Affects Occupations: Technology, Jobs, and Skills". Rochester, NY. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2690435. S2CID 29968989. SSRN 2690435. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 17 September 2022. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  56. ↑ Acemoglu, Daron; Restrepo, Pascual (2020-06-01). "Robots and Jobs: Evidence from US Labor Markets". Journal of Political Economy. 128 (6): 2188–2244. doi:10.1086/705716. hdl:1721.1/130324. ISSN 0022-3808. S2CID 7468879.
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 Rosenberg, Elizabeth; Harrell, Peter E.; Shiffman, Gary M.; Dorshimer, Sam (2019). "Financial Technology and National Security". Center for a New American Security. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  58. ↑ Grainger, Alan; Francisco, Herminia A.; Tiraswat, Penporn (July 2003). "The impact of changes in agricultural technology on long-term trends in deforestation". The International Journal Covering All Aspects of Land Use. 20 (3): 209–223 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  59. ↑ Chaudhry, Imran Sharif; Ali, Sajid; Bhatti, Shaukat Hussain; Anser, Muhammad Khalid; Khan, Ahmad Imran; Nazar, Raima (October 2021). "Dynamic common correlated effects of technological innovations and institutional performance on environmental quality: Evidence from East-Asia and Pacific countries". Environmental Science & Policy. 124 (Environmental Science & Policy): 313–323. doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2021.07.007 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  60. ↑ Smol, J. P. (2009). Pollution of Lakes and Rivers : a Paleoenvironmental Perspective (2nd ed.). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. p. 135. ISBN 978-1444307573. OCLC 476272945.
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 Franssen, M.; Lokhorst, G.-J.; van de Poel, I. (2018). "Philosophy of Technology". In Zalta, E. N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2018 ed.). Archived from the original on 11 September 2022. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 de Vries, M. J.; Verkerk, M. J.; Hoogland, J.; van der Stoep, J. (2015). Philosophy of Technology : An Introduction for Technology and Business Students. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1317445715. OCLC 907132694. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
  63. ↑ Brey, P. (2000). Mitcham, C. (ed.). "Theories of Technology as Extension of Human Faculties". Metaphysics, Epistemology, and Technology. Research in Philosophy and Technology. 19.
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Johnson, Deborah G.; Wetmore, Jameson M. (2021). Technology and Society: Building Our Sociotechnical Future (2nd ed.). MIT Press. ISBN 978-0262539968.
  65. ↑ Dusek, Val (2006). Philosophy of Technology: An Introduction. Wiley. ISBN 978-1405111621. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 13 September 2022.
  66. ↑ Postman, Neil (1993). Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology. New York: Vintage.
  67. ↑ Marcuse, H. (2004). Technology, War and Fascism: Collected Papers of Herbert Marcuse, Volume 1. Routledge. ISBN 978-1134774661. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
  68. ↑ Hansson, Sven Ove (2017). The Ethics of Technology: Methods and Approaches. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1783486595. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 13 September 2022.
  69. ↑ Luppicini, R. (2008). "The emerging field of Technoethics". In Luppicini; R. Adell (eds.). Handbook of Research on Technoethics. Hershey: Idea Group Publishing.
  70. ↑ Veruggio, Gianmarco (2011). "The Roboethics Roadmap". EURON Roboethics Atelier. Scuola di Robotica: 2. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.466.2810.
  71. ↑ Anderson, Michael; Anderson, Susan Leigh, eds. (2011). Machine Ethics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521112352.
  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 72.2 72.3 72.4 Bell, W. Foundations of Futures Studies, Volume 1: Human Science for a New Era. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1412823791. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 12 September 2022.
  73. ↑ Robson, Eleanor (2008). Mathematics in Ancient Iraq. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-691-09182-2.: calculi were in use in Iraq for primitive accounting systems as early as 3200–3000 BCE, with commodity-specific counting representation systems. Balanced accounting was in use by 3000–2350 BCE, and a sexagesimal number system was in use 2350–2000 BCE.
  74. ↑ Flegg, Graham. (1989). Numbers through the ages (in American English). Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Education. ISBN 0-333-49130-0. OCLC 24660570.
  75. ↑ The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project Nhwɛsoɔ:Webarchive, The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project. Retrieved 1 July 2007.
  76. ↑ Marchant, Jo (1 November 2006). "In search of lost time". Nature. 444 (7119): 534–538. Bibcode:2006Natur.444..534M. doi:10.1038/444534a. PMID 17136067. S2CID 4305761.
  77. ↑ G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975). History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations, p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, UNESCO.
  78. ↑ Bedini, Silvio A.; Maddison, Francis R. (1966). "Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 56 (5): 1–69. doi:10.2307/1006002. JSTOR 1006002.
  79. ↑ Fuat Sezgin "Catalogue of the Exhibition of the Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science (at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University", Frankfurt, Germany) Frankfurt Book Fair 2004, pp. 35 & 38.
  80. ↑ Charette, François (2006). "Archaeology: High tech from Ancient Greece". Nature. 444 (7119): 551–552. Bibcode:2006Natur.444..551C. doi:10.1038/444551a. PMID 17136077. S2CID 33513516.
  81. ↑ Price, Derek de S. (1984). "A History of Calculating Machines". IEEE Micro. 4 (1): 22–52. doi:10.1109/MM.1984.291305.
  82. ↑ Őren, Tuncer (2001). "Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents" (PDF). Turk J Elec Engin. 9 (1): 63–70. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 September 2009. Retrieved 21 April 2016.
  83. ↑ Donald Routledge Hill (1985). "Al-Biruni's mechanical calendar", Annals of Science 42, pp. 139–163.
  84. ↑ 84.0 84.1 Ray Girvan, "The revealed grace of the mechanism: computing after Babbage" Nhwɛsoɔ:Webarchive, Scientific Computing World, May/June 2003
  85. ↑ Halacy, Daniel Stephen (1970). Charles Babbage, Father of the Computer. Crowell-Collier Press. ISBN 978-0-02-741370-0.
  86. ↑ L. Torres Quevedo. Ensayos sobre Automatica – Su definicion. Extension teórica de sus aplicaciones, Revista de la Academia de Ciencias Exacta, Revista 12, pp. 391–418, 1914.
  87. ↑ Torres Quevedo. L. (1915). "Essais sur l'Automatique - Sa définition. Etendue théorique de ses applications", Revue Génerale des Sciences Pures et Appliquées, vol. 2, pp. 601–611.
  88. ↑ B. Randell. Electromechanical Calculating Machine, The Origins of Digital Computers, pp.109-120, 1982.
  89. ↑ The Modern History of Computing (in American English). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2017. Archived from the original on 12 July 2010. Retrieved 7 January 2014.
Yɛ yi fii "https://tw.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tɛknɔlɔgyi&oldid=184851"